2) ABOUT THE 8051
The 8051 is an 8 bit microcontroller originally developed by Intel in
1980. It is the world's most popular microcontroller core, made by
many independent manufacturers (truly multi-sourced). There were 126
million 8051s (and variants) shipped in 1993!!
A typical 8051 contains:
- CPU with boolean processor
- 5 or 6 interrupts: 2 are external
2 priority levels
- 2 or 3 16-bit timer/counters
- programmable full-duplex serial port
(baud rate provided by one of the timers)
- 32 I/O lines (four 8-bit ports)
- RAM
- ROM/EPROM in some models
The 8051 architecture is a tad bizarre, but then so are the
architectures of most microcontrollers due to their specialization
(check out the PIC for creativity). One vexing problem with the 8051
is its very non-orthogonal instruction set - especially the
restrictions on accessing the different address spaces. However,
after some time programming the chip, you can get used to it - maybe
even appreciate it.
One strong point of the 8051 is the way it handles interrupts.
Vectoring to fixed 8-byte areas is convenient and efficient. Most
interrupt routines are very short (or at least they should be), and
generally can fit into the 8-byte area. Of course if your interrupt
routine is longer, you can still jump to the appropriate routine from
within the 8 byte interrupt region.
The 8051 instruction set is optimized for the one-bit operations so
often desired in real-world, real-time control applications. The
boolean processor provides direct support for bit manipulation. This
leads to more efficient programs that need to deal with binary input
and output conditions inherent in digital-control problems. Bit
addressing can be used for test pin monitoring or program control
flags.
The 8051 has the widest range of variants of any embedded controller
on the market. The smallest device is the Atmel 89c1051, a 20 Pin
FLASH variant with 2 timers, UART, 20mA. The fastest parts are from
Dallas, with performance close to 10 MIPS! The most powerful chip is
the Siemens 80C517A, with 32 Bit ALU, 2 UARTS, 2K RAM, PLCC84
package, 8 x 16 Bit PWMs, and other features.
Among the major manufacturers are:
AMD Enhanced 8051 parts (no longer producing 80x51 parts)
Atmel FLASH and semi-custom parts
Dallas Battery backed, program download, and fastest variants
Intel 8051 through 80c51gb / 80c51sl
Matra 80c154, low voltage static variants
OKI 80c154, mask parts
Philips 87c748 thru 89c588 - more variants than anyone else
Siemens 80c501 through 80c517a, and SIECO cores
SMC COM20051 with ARCNET token bus network engine
SSI 80x52, 2 x HDLC variant for MODEM use
Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)
AMD was one of the first manufacturers of enhanced variants
including such features as: dual data pointers, slave interface
with arbitration unit, dual port RAM, FIFO buffers, and others.
They are now out of the 8051 business.
Atmel
The smallest current device is the ATMEL 89c1051, a 20 Pin FLASH
variant with 2 timers, UART, 20mA. ATMEL was the first with
standard pinout FLASH, and with more program cycles than other
custom pinout FLASH. These parts compete with OTP and MASK
product on price, but eliminate inventory problems and the hidden
costs of OTP development. This will put real pressure on
"vanilla" micros like PIC and ST6.
Dallas Soft Microcontrollers - DS5000(T), DS5001(T), DS2250(T)
The Dallas Soft Microcontrollers have standard 8051 cores with
on-chip non-volatile RAM instead of ROM. This gives the user the
ability to easily alter the system and is perfect for data
logging. These processors are available in both chip and module
solutions. Among the features included in this family of
products:
- on-chip non-volatile RAM
- loader in ROM for downloading programs (eliminates the hassle
of EPROM erase/program/install cycle)
- built in real time clock option
- watchdog timer
- software security (program and data encryption)
The DS500x is a standard 40 pin DIP package (well, mostly
standard, it is really a BOX which is about double the height of a
normal chip). The DS225x is a SIP version which is functionally
identical to the DS5000 but usually a bit less expensive.
The nice thing about having the RAM on-chip, is that the I/O ports
are unaffected. When the RAM is configured as CODE memory, the
DS5000 behaves exactly as a single-chip 8051. The NV-RAM is
static with a built-in lithium battery, and has no limitations on
the number of writes. You can download your code as many times as
you like without damaging the device. The DS5000 also includes a
loader in ROM, which permits you to bootstrap code into the RAM to
get underway. The loader and on-chip RAM have an encryption
feature with which you can protect your code from being read back
from the device if you wish.
Dallas High-Speed Micros - DS80c320, DS87c520, DS87c530
Real barn-burners - performance up to 10 MIPS! Dallas was the
first to speed up the core. Wasted clock and memory cycles have
been removed using a redesigned processor core. As a result,
every 8051 instruction is executed up to 3 times faster than the
original for the same crystal speed. Clock speeds from DC to
33MHz!
High performance doesn't just mean speed. High integration gives
the user 2 full-duplex hardware serial ports, 13 total interrupt
sources (6 external), watchdog timer, power management, power-fail
reset, and other features.
Intel MCS-51
Introduced in 1980, it has become the industry standard for
embedded control. Intel offers a wide variety of 8051 versions
with different configurations of on-board EPROM/ROM. Also low
power, high integration, and specialized parts are also offered.
OKI
OKI makes an 85c154 piggyback - an 8751 but with an EPROM socket
on top! Great with an EPROM emulator.
Philips
Philips has more 8051 variants than anyone else. Among the
derivatives that they have: 40MHz, 24 pin skinny DIP, low
voltage, quad flat pack (QFP) versions for saving board space,
OTP, I2C bus, and so on.
The c5xx line features high integration, with many built-in
features including built-in EMI/RFI suppression.
The c7xx series are very low-end, inexpensive micros. They are
offered with less memory (1k, 2k, etc.) and fewer features. In
fact the 83c750 sells for only $1 in very high OEM volumes.
Siemens sab80c517a
The 80c517a is one of the most powerful 8051 variants available.
It features high clock speed (40 MHz), and high integration with
32 Bit ALU, 2 UARTS, 2K RAM, PLCC84 package, 8x16 bit PWMs, and
more.
Standard Microsystems Corporation SMC COM20051
The COM20051 is an integrated microcontroller and network
interface which features:
- high performance and low cost
- based on popular 8051 architecture
- drop-in replacement for 80C32 PLCC
- network supports up to 255 nodes
- powerful network diagnostics
- maximum 512 byte packets
- duplicate node ID detection
- self-configuring network protocol
- retains all 8051 peripherals including Serial I/O and
2 Timers
- utilizes ARCNET(R) Token Bus Network Engine
- requires no special emulators
- 5 Mbps to 156 Kbps data rate
- network interface supports RS-485, twisted pair,
coaxial, and fiber optic interfaces
- "receive all" mode allows any packet to be received
Silicon Systems Inc. SSI73M2910/2910A
The SSI73M2910 is a high performance microcontroller designed for
modem and communications applications.
- 8052 Compatible Instruction set.
- 34 MHz Operation @ 4.5 - 5.5V
- 44 MHz Operation @ 4.75 - 5.5.V (2910A)
- 22 MHz Operation @ 3.3 - 5.5.V
- HDLC Support Logic (Packetizer, 16 and 32 CRC, zero ID)
- 24 pins for user programmable I/O ports
- 8 pins programmable chip select logic or I/O for memory mapped
peripherals eliminating glue logic
- 3 external interrupt sources (programmable polarity)
- 16 dedicated latched address pins
- Multiplexed latched/address bus
- Instruction cycle time identical to 8052
- Buffered oscillator (or OSC/2) output pin
- 1.8432 MHz UART clock available
- Bank select circuitry to support up to 128K of external
program memory
- 100-Lead TQFP package available for PCMCIA applications
- Also available in 100-Lead QFP package
A joint project between Intel and Philips Semiconductors has resulted
in two new excting products - 16 bit 8051s! Due to a disagreement
between the parties, they each went their separate ways. Intel
developed the MCS-251, which was originally called the ZX (this name
can still be found on one of the Intel slide shows). Philips came
out with the eXtended Architecture (XA) line.
The Intel MCS-251 is a drop-in replacement for the 8051, and is also
binary compatible. The XA is more of a 16 bit micro which also
happens to be source code compatible. One can argue the merits of
which approach is better.
Pin compatible parts allow instant performance upgrades for existing
designs, and the binary compatibility truly preserves users
investment in code and tools. By staying firmly in the 80x51 camp,
Intel allows users transparent access to an enormous horsepower
range. To further improve throughput in numerically intensive areas,
users can use INTEGER, LONGINT, and FLOAT libraries written for the
MCS-251. The Philips XA is not a drop-in replacement for the 8051.
Binary code compatibility is nice, you can move right up to a more
powerful engine without having to bust a gut (We all know the Intel
binary compatible success story with their 80x86 microprocessors).
But if you're working on a new design, how necessary is binary
compatibility? If you're just looking for a souped up '51, Dallas
already has the 320. If you need the advanced features, you'll need
to recompile or rewrite your software anyhow. You'll also have to
drag along some compatibility baggage with you in order to use the 16
bit operations - these are preceded by an escape code (A5H), the only
instruction not used in the 8051 instruction set.
With source code compatibility, you have to recompile your code (with
a new set of development tools), since the instruction set has been
recrafted to allow the biggest bang for the buck. This process isn't
100% transparent, but then again, binary compatibility isn't either.
If you're upgrading an existing design, the 251 is probably your only
reasonable choice (although you might also want to consider the
Dallas 320). On new designs, you'll have a tough decision to make.
Whichever path you choose to take, the 8051 will never be the same
again.
Intel MCS-251
The Intel MCS-251 is 100% binary and pin compatible with the 8051,
but with a 5-15 times boost in horsepower. This is achieved by a
six fold gain in bus cycles, and further hardware improvements to
avoid wasted bus cycles.
Further performance gains are possible by recoding critical
sections to take advantage of the new features: powerful 8/16/32
bit instructions, flexible 8/16/32 registers, 16MB linear address
space, 16-bit stack pointer, enhanced BIT manipulations, and
improved control instructions. In addition to extra 16/32 bit
instructions, the 251 includes 40 registers with Accumulator and
Index functions overlayed as 16x8, 16x16, 10x32.
Philips 8051XA
By tossing compatibility out the window, Philips was able to
develop a true 16 microcontroller while at the same time
preserving the basic 8051 instruction set (source). The benefits
of this break with tradition result in a chip that has dual 16MB
address spaces (data and code), multitasking support with task
protected memory segments, a separate SFR bus, fast context
switching, and optimized code efficiency. Other features include:
hardware divide and multiply (over 100 times faster than an 8051),
32 vectored interrupts, 16 hardware exceptions, and 16 trap
instructions.
There are many, many varieties of 8051 out there. This is only a
small sampling of typical prices on Intel chips.
8031 (128 bytes RAM)...................................3.59
80C31 (CMOS version of previous).......................6.95
8051AH (256 bytes RAM).................................6.95
8051AHBASIC (w/Basic interpreter built in)............29.95
8751 (4K EPROM, 128 bytes RAM)........................26.95
87C51 (CMOS version of previous)......................39.95
Thanks to Jim Granville of Mandeno Granville Electronics, Ltd. for
this nice summary.
Variant Pins Mfg RAM CODE XRAM Notes
---------------------------------------------------------------------
MCS251 40 Intel 1K 16K 0 16 Bit 80x51FX Prelim
51C806 100 Siemens 256 64Kx 64b SIECO+CAN+appx 517A, faster
80C537A 84 Siemens 256 64Kx 2K ALU, 8 PWM, CaptComp 2UART,
10b A/D
80C517A 84 Siemens 256 32K 2K ALU, 8 PWM, CaptComp 2UART,
10b A/D
80537 84 Siemens 256 64Kx 0 ALU, 8 PWM, CaptComp 2UART,
8b A/D
80517 84 Siemens 256 8K 0 ALU, 8 PWM, CaptComp 2UART,
8b A/D
73D2910 100qfp SSI 256 128Kx 0 80C52+Ports+HDLC
80C535A 68 Siemens 256 64Kx 1K 515+10bA/D, 1K XRAM, BRG, OWD
80CE558 80qfp Philips 256 64Kx 768 Enhanced 80C552, Sep i2c, RSO
80C515A 68 Siemens 256 32K 1K 515+10bA/D, 1K XRAM, BRG, OWD
80535 68 Siemens 256 64Kx 0 Timer2, CaptComp, 6 ports,
8/10b A/D
80515 68 Siemens 256 8K 0 Timer2, CaptComp, 4 ports,
8b A/D
80C535 68 Siemens 256 64Kx 0 Timer2, CaptComp, 5 ports
8b A/D
80C51GB 68 Intel 256 64Kx 0 8051FA+PCA, 8b A/D, SPI
87C51GB 68 Intel 256 8K 0 8051FA+PCA, 8b A/D, SPI
80C592 68 Philips 256 64Kx 256 552-i2c+CAN+XRAM
87C592 68 Philips 256 16K 256 552-i2c+CAN+XRAM
87C598 80 Philips 256 32K 256 552-i2c+CAN+XRAM
80C552 68 Philips 256 64Kx 0 10b A/D, i2c, CaptComp, PWM
87C552 68 Philips 256 8K 0 10b A/D, i2c, CaptComp, PWM
80C562 68 Philips 256 64Kx 0 8b A/D, i2c, CaptComp, PWM
87C451 68 Philips 128 4K 0 7 Ports, 1 Handshake
80C451 68 Philips 128 64Kx 0 7 Ports, 1 Handshake
87C453 68 Philips 256 8K 0 7 Ports, 1 Handshake
83CL580 56,64 Philips 256 6K 0 LV 8052+ADC+i2c+More INTs, WDOG
SABC503 44 Siemens 256 64Kx 0 80C52+8Ch, 10bA/D, BRG, WD, OWD
80C320 40 Dallas 256 64Kx 0 FAST, 2 DPTR 2 UART VRST
80C310 40 Dallas 256 64Kx 0 Simpler 80C320 e62Mhz
87C520 40 Dallas 256 16K 1K 16K OTP enhanced 80C320
80C51FX 40 Intel 256 64Kx 0 80C58i+PCA, AsRST
87C51FA 40 Intel 256 8K 0 8052+PCA, Enh Serial, Automotive
87C51FB 40 Intel 256 16K 0 8052+PCA, Enh Serial, Automotive
87C51FC 40 Intel 256 32K 0 8052+PCA, Enh Serial, Automotive
8XC51FB 40 Philips 256 16K 0 87C51FB with ALE RFI mode
87C51FXL40 Intel 256 32K 0 3v3 80C51FC
80C152JD68 Intel 256 64Kx 0 HDLC/SDLC Serial
80C152 48 Intel 256 64Kx 0 SDLC Serial
8044 40 Intel 192 64Kx 0 RUPI Serial
80C575 40 Philips 256 64Kx 0 8052+PCA, AnalogComp, WDOG,
RSTLo
87C575 40 Philips 256 8K 0 8052+PCA, AnalogComp, WDOG,
RSTLo
80C576 40 Philips 256 8K 0 8052+PCA, UPI, A/D, PWM,
WDOG, VRSTLo
87C576 40 Philips 256 8K 0 8052+PCA, UPI, A/D, PWM,
WDOG, VRSTLo
SABC501 40 Siemens 256 64Kx 0 40MHz Enhanced 8052 U/D
SABC502 40 Siemens 256 64Kx 256 8052+XRAM+8DP+WD+BRG+OWD
80C528 40 Philips 256 64Kx 256 8052+Wdog, XRAM
87C528 40 Philips 256 32K 256 8052+Wdog, XRAM
89CE528 44 Philips 256 32KF 256 Flash 528
87C524 40 Philips 256 16K 256 16K 87C528
80C550 40 Philips 128 4K 0 8b A/D WDog
80CL781 40 Philips 256 64Kx 0 Low Voltage 8052, More INTs,
WDOG
83CL781 40 Philips 256 16K 0 Low Voltage 8052, More INTs,
WDOG
80CL782 40 Philips 256 64Kx 0 Low Voltage, faster 781
89C52 40,44 Atmel 256 8KF 0 FLASH, Fast,LV 87C52
87C54 40 Intel 256 16K 0 16K 87C52i
87C58 40 Intel 256 32K 0 32K 87C52i
87C52 40 Intel 256 8K 0 8052+U/D+OscO+4Li
80C154 40 Matra 256 64Kx 0 Enhanced 8052 (also OKI)
83C154D 40 Matra 256 32K 0 Enhanced 8052
83C154 40 OKI 256 16K 0 Enhanced 8052
80C654 40 Philips 256 64Kx 0 i2c
87C652 40 Philips 256 8K 0 i2c
87C654 40 Philips 256 16K 0 i2c
83CE654 44qfp Philips 256 16K 0 i2c, low RFI 654
DS5000 40 Dallas 128 32KR 32K 80x51 Secure + NV support,
BootLdr
DS2250 40sim Dallas 128 32K 32K As 5000, but smarter package
DS5001 80qfp Dallas 128 64Kx 64K Better 5000, + RPC + BatSw
80C851 40 Philips 128 64Kx 0 8051+256B EEPROM
83C852 6 Philips 256 6K 0 2K EEPROM SmartCard 80x51,
Die, ALU
8052 40 All 256 64Kx 0 8051+Timer2
8752 40 Intel 256 8K 0 8051+Timer2
80C52 40 Siemens 256 64Kx 0 8051+Timer2, Philips, Oki, Matra
88SC54C 8 Atmel 256 64Kx 512 8052+PublicKey,prelim
80CL410 40 Philips 128 64Kx 0 Low Voltage, More INTs, i2c-UART
80CL31 40 Philips 128 64Kx 0 Low Voltage, More Ints, 80x51
80CL610 40 Philips 256 64Kx 0 Low Voltage, More INTs, i2c-UART
83CL411 40 Philips 256 64Kx 0 80CL31 with 256 RAM, No T2
89C51 40,44 Atmel 128 4KF 0 FLASH,Fast,LV 87C51
8751 40 All 128 4K 0 Core processor, UART, Tmr0, Tmr1
87C51 40 All 128 4K 0 Core processor, UART, Tmr0, Tmr1
8031 40 All 128 64Kx 0 Core processor, UART, Tmr0, Tmr1
8051 40 All 128 4K 0 Core processor, UART, Tmr0, Tmr1
80C31L 40 Matra 128 64Kx 0 Low Voltage 80x51
87C752 28 Philips 64 2KE 0 87751+ A/D, PWM
87C749 28 Philips 64 2KE 0 87C752 - i2c
87C751 24 Philips 64 2KE 0 Small size, bit i2c
87C748 24 Philips 64 2KE 0 87C751 - i2c
87C750 24 Philips 64 1KE 0 Small size,
89C2051 20 Atmel 128 2KF 0 20Pin 89C51,+AnaComp+LED
89C1051 20 Atmel 64 1KF 0 20Pin 2051 -uart,timer1
--------------- FLASH summary ---------------
80C509F 100qf Siemens 256 128KF 3K FLASH Super ClkDbled 517A
80C517AF84 Siemens 256 64KF 2K FLASH 517A
80C515AF68 Siemens 256 64KF 1K FLASH 515A
89C558 80qf Philips 256 32KF 1K effectively a FLASH 552
88SC54C 68 Atmel 256 16KFE 512 FLASH 8052+PublicKey 8KF + 8KEE
89C52 40,44 Atmel 256 8KF 0 FLASH, Fast,LV 87C52
89C51 40,44 Atmel 128 4KF 0 FLASH,Fast,LV 87C51
89C2051 20 Atmel 128 2KF 0 FLASH 20 Pin 89C51,+ AnaComp+LED
89C1051 20 Atmel 64 1KF 0 FLASH 20Pin 2051 - uart, timer1
Special - DECT Phones, imagine what you could control with this...
PCA5097 100qf Philips 256 64KF 3K FLASH+CODEC+1K DSP+ADPCM
family of microcontrollers
Popular - readily available and widely supported, a full range of
free and commercial support products is available
Fast and effective - the architecture correlates closely with the
problem being solved (control systems), specialized instructions mean
that fewer bytes of code need to be fetched and fewer conditional
jumps are processed
Low cost - high level of system integration within one component,
only a handful of components needed to create a working system
Wide range - ONE set of tools covers the greatest horsepower range
of any microcontroller family, other suppliers handle a number of
DIFFERENT and INCOMPATIBLE (and often single-sourced) cores to cover
the same power range as the 80x51, the 8051 provides a real cost
savings in tools, training, and software support
Compatibility - opcodes and binaries are the SAME for all 80x51
variants (unlike most other microcontroller families)
Multi-sourced - over 12 manufacturers, hundreds of varieties,
something for everyone with the security of ready availability
Constant improvements - improvements in silicon/design increase speed
and power annually, 16 bit models coming from several manufacturers,
low cost skinny DIP models now available
Q: Why are ports P0 and P2 unavailable for I/O when using external
memory?
A: The output drivers of ports 0 and 2, and the input buffers of
port 0, are used to access external memory. Port 0 outputs the
low byte of the external memory address, time-multiplexed with
the byte being read/written. Port 2 outputs the high byte of the
external memory address when the address is 16 bits wide.
Otherwise, the port 2 pins continue to emit the P2 SFR contents.
Therefore, when external memory is being used, ports 0 and 2 are
unavailable for their primary use as general I/O lines.
Q: Is there anything I can do to use these ports for I/O when using
external memory?
A1: Not really.
A2: If you really want to make your life miserable, you can try to
use P2 for output when it isn't being used for memory access.
The contents of the SFR latch for port 2 are not modified during
the execution of a Data Memory fetch cycle on the Expanded Bus.
If an instruction requiring a cycle on the Expanded Bus is not
followed by another instruction requiring a cycle on the Expanded
Bus, then the original contents of the port 2 SFR latch will
appear during the next machine cycle. That is, when PSEN, RD and
WR are all inactive, you can use port 2 for output (check the
timing charts in the data book). The chip will emit the contents
of the P2 SFR at that time. Do you REALLY want to bother with
this though?
A3: By including the external RAM "on-chip", the Dallas DS5000 makes
these ports available for I/O. The SLIC2E from Xicor does the
same thing for other 8051 parts.
A4: If you really need the extra I/O ports, there are number of 8051
variants that have additional ports. Philips and Siemens are two
such manufacturers that have these parts in their product lines.
Q: I'm outputting a 1 to a pin on port 0, but I'm not getting a 1
out. If I use a pin on port 1 instead, it works fine. What am I
doing wrong?
A: Port 0 has open drain outputs. Ports 1, 2, and 3 have internal
pullups. What does this mean? See the next question and answer.
Q: Port 0 has open drain outputs. Ports 1, 2, and 3 have internal
pullups. What does this mean, and why should I care?
A: When used as outputs, all port pins will drive the state to which
the associated SFR latch bit has been set. Except for port 0,
which will only drive low (not high). When a 0 is written to a
bit in port 0, the pin is pulled low (0). But, when a 1 is
written to a bit in port 0, the pin goes into a high impedance
state - or in other words, "disconnected", no value. To be able
to get a 1 as output, you need an external pullup resistor to
pull up the port (to 1) when the port is in its high impedence
state. Typical values for pullups might be 470 ohm to drive a
LED, and 4.7K or higher to drive logic circuits.
C: Any port pin may be used as a general purpose input simply by
writing a 1 into the associated SFR latch bit. Since ports 1, 2,
and 3 have internal pull-up devices they will pull high and will
source current when pulled low. When a port 0 bit is programmed
for input (set to 1) it will go to a high impedance state.
Q: Why is such an oddball crystal frequency of 11.0592 MHz used so
often for 8051 designs.
A1: 11.0592 MHz crystals are often used because it can be divided to
give you exact clock rates for most of the common baud rates for
the UART, especially for the higher speeds (9600, 19200).
Despite the "oddball" value, these crystals are readily available
and commonly used.
A2: When Timer 1 is used as the baud rate generator, the baud rates
in Modes 1 and 3 are determined by the Timer 1 overflow rate and
the value of SMOD (PCON.7 - double speed baud rates) as follows:
smod
2
Baud rate = ------ x (Timer 1 overflow rate)
32
Most typically, the timer is configured in the auto-reload mode
(mode 2, high nibble of TMOD = 0100B). In this case, the baud
rate is given as:
smod
2 Oscillator frequency
Baud rate = ------- x --------------------
32 12 x (256 - TH1)
Some typical baud rates for an 11.0592 crystal:
Baud rate SMOD TH1
---------------------
19200 1 0FDH
9600 0 0FDH
4800 0 0FAH
2400 0 0F4H
1200 0 0E8H
300 0 0A0H
Another way to look at it, would be to rework the formula to give
us the crystal frequency that we need for the desired baud rate:
smod
Minimum crystal frequency = Baud rate x 384 / 2
This gives us the minimum crystal frequency possible for the
desired baud rate. The frequency can be evenly multiplied to
obtain higher clock speeds.
As an example, the minimum crystal frequency for 19.2K baud is:
3.6864 = 19200 x 384 / 2 (smod is 1 for 19.2K baud)
11.0592 = 3.6864 x 3
To determine the timer reload value needed, the formula can be
changed to factor in the multiplier:
smod
Crystal frequency = Baud rate x (256 - TH1) x 384 / 2
From the example above, the multiplier (3) is used to determine
TH1:
TH1 = 256 - 3 = 253 = 0FDH
The crystal frequency for 19.2K baud is:
11.0592 = 19200 x (256 - 0FDH) x 384 / 2
(smod is 1 for 19.2K baud)
Other values can also give good results, but 11.0592 is one of
the higher speed crystals that allows high baud rates.
Q: How do I decrement the data pointer (DPTR)? Where did the DEC
DPTR instruction go?
A1: You can't decrement DPTR. Although there is an INC DPTR
instruction, there is no DEC DPTR. In fact, there is no other
way to change the contents of DPTR except for MOV and INC.
A2: You can use the accumulator as an offset if you need to perform
"calculations" on the DPTR. As an example:
MOV DPTR,#9000 ; load base address into DPTR
MOV A,#10 ; load desired offset
MOVC A,@A+DPTR ; retrieve desired data
A3: Another method would be to use indirect addressing. Instructions
such as MOVX A,@Ri can address a 256 byte "page" of external RAM.
The value represented by @Ri (@R0 or @R1) is emitted to Port 0,
which is the low byte of the external RAM address bus. In
addition, the contents of the P2 register is emitted to Port 2,
which is the high byte of the external memory address bus. The
indirect addressing register together with the P2 register, which
specifies the "current page number", gives us a 16 bit pointer
into the external memory address space.
This technique can make moving data in external memory much
faster than reloading DPTR every time. The indirect addressing
register can be manipulated much easier than DPTR which can only
be loaded and incremented. Just remember to make sure that P2
contains the proper value for the high byte of the address.
Q: I'm trying to PUSH and POP the accumulator, but my assembler
complains about the instruction PUSH A. What's wrong with
this?
A: In instructions that are accumulator specific, A is used to
represent the accumulator. However, PUSH and POP have no
accumulator specific forms, only direct addressing forms.
Therefore, you need to specify the correct accumulator "address"
- ACC. Use the instruction PUSH ACC.
Q: The 8052 AH-BASIC interpreter seems to work OK when I perform
simple interpreted commands. For example:
READY
> PRINT "HELLO"
HELLO
However, when I try to enter a [numbered] statement, I get an
error:
READY
> 10 PRINT "HELLO"
INVALID LINE NUMBER..!!
I get the same error when I try LIST. No matter what value I set
a variable to, it returns a 0. What's my problem?
A: Faulty memory decoding or addressing is the most common cause for
this error message. Your address decoding might also indicate
that there is more memory than really exists. Go over your
circuit design and inspect your wiring carefully.
Q: Can I use C for time critical code?
A: The code produced by many of the excellent compilers today, is
remarkably efficient - for both speed and size. Modern compilers
are quite adept at keeping track of register and variable usage.
Further optimization techiniques result in code that can be as
good or better than hand written assembler. Even for ISRs
(interrupt service routines), C should be acceptable for all but
the most time critical routines.
Makes you think twice about breaking your head over assembly
code.